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"kernels_of_truth": [
{
"fact": "The vellum of the Voynich manuscript dates to the early 15th century (1404–1438).",
"status": "verified",
"evidence": "Radiocarbon dating by the University of Arizona (2009) with 95% confidence interval.",
"study_depth": "well-studied",
"under_study_reason": ""
},
{
"fact": "Roger Bacon lived during the 13th century.",
"status": "verified",
"evidence": "Historical records and scholarly consensus on Bacon's lifespan (c. 1219/20 – c. 1292).",
"study_depth": "well-studied",
"under_study_reason": ""
},
{
"fact": "The attribution to Roger Bacon originated from historical claims and early 20th-century theories.",
"status": "verified",
"evidence": "Letters by Johannes Marcus Marci (1665) and Wilfrid Voynich's promotion of the theory; William Romaine Newbold's 1921 decipherment claims.",
"study_depth": "partially-studied",
"under_study_reason": "Historical provenance studies are well-documented, but motivations behind early attributions (e.g., Voynich's potential financial incentives to link it to Bacon) lack modern critical analysis. Antiquarian book trade dynamics and 17th-century scholarly rivalries (e.g., Athanasius Kircher's reputation) may have influenced the attribution."
},
{
"fact": "William Romaine Newbold's decipherment linking the text to Bacon was debunked.",
"status": "verified",
"evidence": "John Matthews Manly's 1931 critique showing Newbold's method relied on subjective micrography interpretations.",
"study_depth": "well-studied",
"under_study_reason": ""
},
{
"fact": "The Voynich manuscript's script and illustrations remain undeciphered.",
"status": "verified",
"evidence": "Consensus across modern cryptanalysis (e.g., NSA's 1970s study) and linguistic studies (e.g., Gordon Rugg's 2004 hoax hypothesis).",
"study_depth": "partially-studied",
"under_study_reason": "Funding for Voynich research is limited to niche academic grants; no commercial or institutional incentives exist to solve it. Under-study persists due to high risk/low reward for career academics."
}
],
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{
"claim": "The Voynich manuscript was written by Roger Bacon.",
"gap": "Temporal inconsistency (Bacon died ~1292; manuscript dates to 1404–1438) and lack of stylistic/linguistic alignment with Bacon's known works."
},
{
"claim": "Newbold's decipherment scientifically validated Bacon's authorship.",
"gap": "Newbold's method was disproven as subjective pattern-matching without cryptographic rigor."
},
{
"claim": "The manuscript's content reflects Bacon's scientific theories.",
"gap": "No verified thematic overlap with Bacon's Opus Majus or other works; illustrations (e.g., herbal diagrams) lack medieval scholastic context."
}
],
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"pubmed_status": "skipped (non-biomedical claim)",
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{
"source": "Mysterious Voynich Manuscript reborn in facsimile edition | Yale News",
"text": "Johannes Marcus Marci, a Prague ... in Rome. Marci reports that the manuscript was sold to Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II for 600 ducats and that Roger Bacon, the 13th-century English philosopher and Franciscan friar, was believed to be its author....",
"url": "https://news.yale.edu/2016/10/31/mysterious-voynich-manuscript-reborn-facsimile-edition",
"authority": 0.95,
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"source": "Experts determine age of book 'nobody can read'",
"text": "Using radiocarbon dating, a team led by Greg Hodgins in the UA's department of physics has found the manuscript's parchment pages date back to the early 15th century, making the book a century older than scholars had previously thought.",
"url": "https://phys.org/news/2011-02-experts-age.html",
"authority": 0.7,
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"source": "Wikipedia: Voynich manuscript",
"text": "The Voynich manuscript (/ˈvɔɪnɪtʃ/, VOY-nitch) is an illustrated codex, hand-written in an undeciphered script referred to as "Voynichese". The vellum",
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voynich_manuscript",
"authority": 0.5,
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{
"source": "Wikipedia: Roger Bacon",
"text": "Roger Bacon (/ˈbeɪkən/; Latin: Rogerus or Rogerius Baconus, Baconis, also Frater Rogerus; c. 1219/20 – c. 1292), also known by the scholastic accolade",
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon",
"authority": 0.5,
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{
"source": "The Unsolvable Mysteries of the Voynich Manuscript | The New Yorker",
"text": "But it did not hold up to closer ... Newbold’s “decipherments were not discoveries of secrets hidden by Roger Bacon but the products of his own intense enthusiasm and his learned and ingenious subconscious.”...",
"url": "https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-unsolvable-mysteries-of-the-voynich-manuscript",
"authority": 0.5,
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"source": "Roger Bacon and the Voynich MS",
"text": "JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.",
"url": "https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2848508.pdf",
"authority": 1,
"channel": "brave"
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{
"source": "Mysterious Voynich Manuscript reborn in facsimile edition | Yale News",
"text": "Johannes Marcus Marci, a Prague ... in Rome. Marci reports that the manuscript was sold to Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II for 600 ducats and that Roger Bacon, the 13th-century English philosopher and Franciscan friar, was believed to be its author....",
"url": "https://news.yale.edu/2016/10/31/mysterious-voynich-manuscript-reborn-facsimile-edition",
"authority": 0.95,
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{
"source": "Voynich MS - History of research of the MS",
"text": "Newbold and all those who followed his belief were to some extent disgraced and this may have had the effect of scaring off serious research of the Voynich MS. Manly also left a statement that the solution of the Voynich MS is a relatively simple substitution cip",
"url": "http://voynich.nu/solvers.html",
"authority": 0.95,
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{
"source": "Crossref: 1928 — II. The Voynich Cipher Manuscript of Roger Bacon: Sketch of Its History",
"text": "II. The Voynich Cipher Manuscript of Roger Bacon: Sketch of Its History. The Cipher of Roger Bacon",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.9783/9781512818239-004",
"authority": 0.88,
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{
"source": "Crossref: 1928 — III. The Voynich Cipher Manuscript Of Roger Bacon: Sketch of Its Contents",
"text": "III. The Voynich Cipher Manuscript Of Roger Bacon: Sketch of Its Contents. The Cipher of Roger Bacon",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.9783/9781512818239-005",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Brumbaugh 1974 — Botany and the Voynich \"Roger Bacon\" Manuscript Once More",
"text": "Botany and the Voynich \"Roger Bacon\" Manuscript Once More. Speculum",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.2307/2851756",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Brumbaugh 1976 — The Voynich 'Roger Bacon' Cipher Manuscript: Deciphered Maps of Stars",
"text": "The Voynich 'Roger Bacon' Cipher Manuscript: Deciphered Maps of Stars. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.2307/751135",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Pritchard 1987 — Notes on a Manuscript of Walter of Chatillon's Alexandreis from an Illustrious Welsh Library ",
"text": "Notes on a Manuscript of Walter of Chatillon's Alexandreis from an Illustrious Welsh Library [Yale, Beinecke Library, Marston MS 252]. Scriptorium",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.3406/scrip.1987.1470",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: — Attica. Unknown provenance. Tit. sep. Marci Aurelii cuiusdam, s. II/IIIp.",
"text": "Attica. Unknown provenance. Tit. sep. Marci Aurelii cuiusdam, s. II/IIIp.. Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1163/1874-6772_seg_a14_237",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: 2024 — Appendix 3 New Haven, Yale University, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Beinecke MS 410",
"text": "Appendix 3 New Haven, Yale University, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Beinecke MS 410. English Birth Girdles",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501513909-014",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: — Moesia. Unknown provenance. Carmen sep. Marci et Silcae, s. I/IIp.",
"text": "Moesia. Unknown provenance. Carmen sep. Marci et Silcae, s. I/IIp.. Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1163/1874-6772_seg_a25_806",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: 2025 — THE VOYNICH MANUSCRIPT (c. 1404–38)",
"text": "THE VOYNICH MANUSCRIPT (c. 1404–38). Cryptic",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.30019289.6",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Robertson 1992 — Radiocarbon Dating of Groundwater in a Confined Aquifer in Southeast Arizona",
"text": "Radiocarbon, δ 13 C and major-element data were used to construct a geochemical framework for interpretation of the hydrological flow system in the lower San Pedro basin, southeastern Arizona, USA. The 14 C and major-element data show a regional confined aquifer that extends thro",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200063955",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Mead 1978 — Arizona Radiocarbon Dates Ix: Carbon Isotope Dating of Packrat Middens",
"text": "The carbon isotope analyses reported here include all radiocarbon dates run on packrat middens in the United States and Mexico by the Arizona radiocarbon laboratory through October 1977. All samples described below report dates by CO 2 (0.5 or 2.0L) counting. Age calculations are",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200004045",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Stafford 1987 — Study of Bone Radiocarbon Dating Accuracy at the University of Arizona NSF Accelerator Facilit",
"text": "Bone would seem to be an ideal material for 14 C dating because this calcified tissue contains 20 weight per cent protein. Fossil bone, however, can lose most of its original organic matter and frequently contains contaminants having different 14 C ages. Numerous 14 C dates on bo",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200043538",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Schmeh 2018 — Review of The Voynich Manuscript by Raymond Clemens and The Voynich Manuscript: The wo",
"text": "Review of The Voynich Manuscript by Raymond Clemens and The Voynich Manuscript: The world's most Mysterious and Esoteric Codex by Stephen Skinner. Cryptologia",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/01611194.2018.1435196",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Burrows 2017 — The Voynich Manuscript ed. by Clemens, Raymond",
"text": "The Voynich Manuscript ed. by Clemens, Raymond. Parergon",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1353/pgn.2017.0007",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Manly 1931 — Roger Bacon and the Voynich MS",
"text": "Roger Bacon and the Voynich MS. Speculum",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.2307/2848508",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Newbold 1928 — The Cipher of Roger Bacon",
"text": "The Cipher of Roger Bacon. ",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.9783/9781512818239",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Bodla 2025 — Developing a Decipherment Framework (VEMORIC) to Solve the Voynich Manuscript via Quantitative Mo",
"text": "Developing a Decipherment Framework (VEMORIC) to Solve the Voynich Manuscript via Quantitative Morphology. ",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5748782",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: Bacon 2010 — The Opus Majus of Roger Bacon",
"text": "Roger Bacon, the medieval natural philosopher who broke new ground in promoting scientific method, produced the encyclopedic Opus Majus or 'Greater Work' in the mid-thirteenth century. This 1897 publication in two volumes was the first complete edition of the work to appear in pr",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511709661",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: 2010 — Plate section",
"text": "Plate section. The Opus Majus of Roger Bacon",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511709678.021",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "Crossref: 2010 — CORRECTIONS AND EMENDATIONS",
"text": "CORRECTIONS AND EMENDATIONS. The Opus Majus of Roger Bacon",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511709678.019",
"authority": 0.88,
"channel": "crossref"
},
{
"source": "SemanticScholar: Appplequist 2020 — Book Reviews",
"text": "Book Reviews",
"url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-020-09490-4",
"authority": 0.85,
"channel": "semanticscholar"
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{
"source": "SemanticScholar: Hahn 2012 — Monastic Scribes and Microcomputers: Bridging the Gap Between Medieval Scientists and Moder",
"text": "TH E R E has long been a basic need in the area of medieval studies for solid, scholarly, critical editions of many unpublished works that were written, copied and read during the Middle Ages. The importance of these materials in the understanding of medieval thought and activiti",
"url": "https://jrul.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/jrul/article/download/1615/3055",
"authority": 0.85,
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{
"source": "Wikipedia-cited: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
"text": "Primary source cited by Wikipedia article \"The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic\"",
"url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11609934",
"authority": 0.7,
"channel": "wikipedia"
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{
"source": "Experts determine age of book 'nobody can read'",
"text": "Using radiocarbon dating, a team led by Greg Hodgins in the UA's department of physics has found the manuscript's parchment pages date back to the early 15th century, making the book a century older than scholars had previously thought.",
"url": "https://phys.org/news/2011-02-experts-age.html",
"authority": 0.7,
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{
"source": "Wikipedia: Voynich manuscript",
"text": "The Voynich manuscript (/ˈvɔɪnɪtʃ/, VOY-nitch) is an illustrated codex, hand-written in an undeciphered script referred to as "Voynichese". The vellum",
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voynich_manuscript",
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"source": "Wikipedia: Roger Bacon",
"text": "Roger Bacon (/ˈbeɪkən/; Latin: Rogerus or Rogerius Baconus, Baconis, also Frater Rogerus; c. 1219/20 – c. 1292), also known by the scholastic accolade",
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon",
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"source": "Wikipedia: John Matthews Manly",
"text": "Romaine Newbold's theory that the Voynich Manuscript was a coded work by the English friar Roger Bacon. Newbold first presented the theory in 1921 during a",
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Matthews_Manly",
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"source": "Wikipedia: The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic",
"text": "Bacon's cryptography influenced speculation about his authorship of the Voynich Manuscript, though this was disproven by radiocarbon dating. In the 19th",
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic",
"authority": 0.5,
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{
"source": "Wikipedia: Edward Kelley",
"text": "precedent, and of a dubious connection between the Voynich Manuscript and John Dee (through Roger Bacon), Kelley has been suspected of having fabricated",
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Kelley",
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{
"source": "Meet the Voynich manuscript, the world’s most mysterious book",
"text": "The celebrated Voynich collection of rare and illuminated or illustrated manuscripts and early printed books was placed on exhibition at the Albright Art Gallery yesterday afternoon. […] One of these manuscripts was written in the 13th century by ...",
"url": "https://weirdmedievalguys.substack.com/p/meet-the-voynich-manuscript-the-worlds",
"authority": 0.5,
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{
"source": "Roger Bacon & the Voynich Manuscript, revisited... - Cipher Mysteries",
"text": "He told Kircher in the letter that the manuscript was attributed to Roger Bacon. What happened to it after Kircher’s death in 1680 is unknown—apparently it went to one of his friends, who took no particular interest in it, and from whom it went to the collection ",
"url": "https://ciphermysteries.com/2009/12/28/roger-bacon-the-voynich-manuscript-revisited",
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"source": "The Mysterious Contents of the Voynich Manuscript | HISTORY",
"text": "“Voynich called it the ‘Roger Bacon cipher manuscript’ because he believed it was created by Bacon, who had a strong association with magic and also wrote about secret writing methods,” says Shaw.",
"url": "https://www.history.com/articles/voynich-manuscript-mystery",
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"source": "Unsolved Mystery: The Voynich Manuscript",
"text": "Wilfred Voynich believed the manuscript was written by Roger Bacon, a 13th-century English philosopher and scientist. Bacon, often called "Doctor Mirabilis" (Latin for "Wonderful Teacher"), was an intellectual giant of his time. He is credited",
"url": "https://www.60out.com/blog/unsolved-mystery-the-voynich-manuscript",
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"source": "A medieval manuscript has confounded scholars for centuries. Have they been reading it wrong all this time? | Culture | The Guardian",
"text": "When it was bought in 1912 by Wilfrid Voynich, a Polish revolutionary and book dealer with a shop on London’s Soho Square, it was thought to be a scientific diary written by the 13th-century polymath Roger Bacon.",
"url": "https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2026/oct/06/voynich-manuscript-research-pages-wrongly-bound",
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"source": "The 600-year-old riddle of the Voynich manuscript, explained | Vox",
"text": "Early-20th-century philosopher ... when properly decoded, the manuscript proved that Bacon had used both telescopes and microscopes to anticipate modern germ theory....",
"url": "https://www.vox.com/culture/2017/9/18/16290436/voynich-manuscript-explained",
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"source": "The Voynich Manuscript: The world’s most mysterious text",
"text": "Marci’s letter states that the book had belonged to Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, who purchased it for 600 ducats – an enormous sum – believing it to be the work of Roger Bacon, the thirteenth-century English polymath.",
"url": "https://worldpoliticshistory.substack.com/p/voynich-manuscript",
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"source": "World's \"most mysterious manuscript\" gives up a secret",
"text": "The work - of unknown provenance ... of Arizona this week did unlock one secret: carbon-dating has helped scientists estimate the book's creation sometime between 1404 and 1438....",
"url": "https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/worlds-most-mysterious-manuscript-gives-up-a-secret/",
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"source": "Voynich manuscript — Grokipedia",
"text": "In 2009, researchers at the University ... the NSF Arizona AMS Laboratory, yielded a 95% confidence interval of 1404–1438 CE for the death of the animals from which the parchment was made.[7] The vellum consists of calfskin, and the ...",
"url": "https://grokipedia.com/page/Voynich_manuscript",
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"source": "Mysterious Voynich manuscript dates back to the 15th century - Medievalists.net",
"text": "Researchers from the University of Arizona have discovered that the Voynich manuscript, which has been called “the world’s most mysterious manuscript,” was written sometime between 1404 to 1438.",
"url": "https://www.medievalists.net/2011/02/mysterious-voynich-manuscript-dates-back-to-the-15th-century/",
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"source": "The Voynich Manuscript: An Intriguing Mystery in Codicology",
"text": "British psychologist and linguist Gordon Rugg, a professor at Keele University (near Manchester), developed this idea. He demonstrated that the techniques of the time (i.e., the 15th century) could allow scholars with a strong mathematical background to create a text with certain",
"url": "https://worldpolicyhub.com/the-voynich-manuscript-an-intriguing-mystery-in-codicology/",
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"source": "17.1 Certain facts about materials and date – Instruvo",
"text": "The Voynich manuscript is now bound in a plain parchment‑covered binding that does not match what we would expect for an early‑fifteenth‑century luxury herbal or scientific book. Codicological study—the analysis of the physical structure of the book—shows that this binding is not",
"url": "https://instruvo.com/the-voynich-manuscript-the-most-frustrating-book-on-earth/section-2-forty-nine-facts-about-the-voynich-manuscript/17-codicology-dating-and-the-physical-object/17-1-certain-facts-about-materials-and-date/",
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{
"source": "Voynich Manuscript: Medieval Mystery Explained",
"text": "The Voynich Manuscript is an illustrated early 15th-century codex written in an unknown script dubbed “Voynichese”. Carbon-dated to 1404–1438 and likely produced in late medieval Europe, it combines herbal, astronomical, and enigmatic ...",
"url": "https://historymedieval.com/voynich-manuscript-decoding-its-secrets/",
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"source": "Roger Bacon | Voynich Wiki | Fandom",
"text": "The Voynich manuscript has been attributed to Bacon by various researchers on the topic, including Johannes Marcus Marci, Wilfrid Voynich, a book drafted by William Romaine Newbold and posthumously edited and published by Roland Grubb Kent in 1928, ...",
"url": "https://voynichlanguage.fandom.com/wiki/Roger_Bacon",
"authority": 0.5,
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"source": "The Unsolvable Mysteries of the Voynich Manuscript | The New Yorker",
"text": "But it did not hold up to closer ... Newbold’s “decipherments were not discoveries of secrets hidden by Roger Bacon but the products of his own intense enthusiasm and his learned and ingenious subconscious.”...",
"url": "https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-unsolvable-mysteries-of-the-voynich-manuscript",
"authority": 0.5,
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"source": "Commentary: Why do people keep convincing themselves they've solved this medieval mystery? | Editorials | napavalleyregister.com",
"text": "In June 1921, the monthly magazine Hearst’s International announced that University of Pennsylvania Professor William Newbold had “come upon the key to the secret cipher of the [Voynich] Manuscript . . . and the truth of six hundred years ago is coming out!” Newbold surmised that",
"url": "https://napavalleyregister.com/opinion/editorial/commentary-why-do-people-keep-convincing-themselves-theyve-solved-this-medieval-mystery/article_f3351dab-1936-5608-9785-388ad3174645.html",
"authority": 0.5,
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"source": "A medieval manuscript has confounded scholars for centuries. Have they been reading it wrong all this time? | Culture - Infralog",
"text": "The manuscript’s unknown provenance has piqued scholarly interest ever since it surfaced in book collectors’ records in the 17th century. When it was bought in 1912 by Wilfrid Voynich, a Polish revolutionary and book dealer with a shop on London’s Soho Square, it was thought to b",
"url": "https://www.infralog.in/a-medieval-manuscript-has-confounded-scholars-for-centuries-have-they-been-reading-it-wrong-all-this-time-culture/",
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